12.3: Amino Acids and Isoelectric Points (2025)

Titration curves

The titration curve for alanine, shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\),demonstrates this relationship. At a pH lower than 2, both the carboxylate and amine functions are protonated, so the alanine molecule has a net positive charge. At a pH greater than 10, the amine exists as a neutral base and the carboxyl as its conjugate base, so the alanine molecule has a net negative charge. At intermediate pH's the zwitterion concentration increases, and at a characteristic pH, called the isoelectric point (pI), the negatively and positively charged molecular species are present in equal concentrations. This behavior is general for simple (difunctional) amino acids. Starting from a fully protonated state, the pK_a's of the acidic functions range from 1.8 to 2.4 for -CO₂H, and 8.8 to 9.7 for -NH₃⁽⁺⁾. The isoelectric points range from 5.5 to 6.2. Titration curves show the neutralization of these acids by added base, and the change in pH during the titration.

Some amino acids have additional acidic or basic functions in their side chains. These compounds are listed in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). A third pK_a, representing the acidity or basicity of the extra function, is listed in the fourth column of the table. The pI's of these amino acids (last column) are often very different from those noted above for the simpler members.

As expected, such compounds display three inflection points in their titration curves, illustrated by the titrations ofaspartic acid (Figure\ (\PageIndex{2}\)) and arginine (Figure\ (\PageIndex{3}\)). For each of these compounds four possible charged species are possible, one of which has no overall charge. Formulas for these species are written to the right of the titration curves, together with the pH at which each is expected to predominate. The very high pH required to remove the last acidic proton from arginine reflects the exceptionally high basicity of the guanidine moiety at the end of the side chain.

The Isoelectric Point

Look carefully at the titration curve in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). In an acid solution, the amino acid is protonated and exists primarily as a cation. In a basic solution, the amino acid is deprotonated and exists primarily as an anion. In between the two is an intermediate pH at which the amino acid is exactly balanced between anionic and cationic forms, existing primarily as the neutral, dipolar zwitterion. This pH is called the amino acid’s isoelectric point (pI) and has a value of 6.01 for alanine.

The isoelectric point of an amino acid depends on its structure, with values for the 20 common amino acids given previously in Table 12.1.1. The 13 neutral amino acids have isoelectric points near neutrality, in the pH range 5.0 to 6.5. The isoelectric point, pI, is the pH of an aqueous solution of an amino acid (or peptide) at which the molecules on average have no net charge. In other words, the positively charged groups are exactly balanced by the negatively charged groups. For simple amino acids such as alanine, the pI is an average of the pK_a's of the carboxyl (2.34) and ammonium (9.69) groups. Thus, the pI for alanine is calculated to be: (2.34 + 9.69)/2 = 6.02, the experimentally determined value.

More specifically, the pI of any neutral amino acid is the average of the two acid-dissociation constants that involve the neutral zwitterion. For the 13 amino acids with a neutral side chain, pI is the average of pK_a1 and pK_a2. For the 7amino acids with either a strongly or weakly acidic side chain, pI is the average of the two lowest pK_a values. For the three amino acids with a basic side chain, pI is the average of the two highest pK_a values.

If additional acidic or basic groups are present as side-chain functions, the pI is the average of the pK_a's of the two most similar acids. To assist in determining similarity we define two classes of acids. The first consists of acids that are neutral in their protonated form (e.g. CO₂H & SH). The second includes acids that are positively charged in their protonated state (e.g. -NH₃⁺). In the case of aspartic acid, observe the titration curve in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\), the similar acids are the alpha-carboxyl function (pK_a = 2.1) and the side-chain carboxyl function (pK_a = 3.9), so pI = (2.1 + 3.9)/2 = 3.0. For arginine,observe the titration curve in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\), the similar acids are the guanidinium species on the side-chain (pK_a = 12.5) and the alpha-ammonium function (pK_a = 9.0), so the calculated pI = (12.5 + 9.0)/2 = 10.75

The acidic amino acids have isoelectric points at lower pH so that deprotonation of the side-chain −CO₂H does not occur at their pI, and the three basic amino acids have isoelectric points at higher pH so that protonation of the side-chain amino group does not occur at their pI.As noted earlier, the titration curves of simple amino acids display two inflection points, one due to the strongly acidic carboxyl group (pK_a¹ = 1.8 to 2.4), and the other for the less acidic ammonium function (pK_a² = 8.8 to 9.7). For the 2º-amino acid proline, pK_a² is 10.6, reflecting the greater basicity of 2º-amines.

Electrophoresis

At pH 6.00 alanine and isoleucine exist on average as neutral zwitterionic molecules, and are not influenced by the electric field. Arginine is a basic amino acid. Both base functions exist as "onium" conjugate acids in the pH 6.00 matrix. The solute molecules of arginine therefore carry an excess positive charge, and they move toward the cathode. The two carboxyl functions in aspartic acid are both ionized at pH 6.00, and the negatively charged solute molecules move toward the anode in the electric field. Structures for all these species are shown to the right of the display.

The distribution of charged species in a sample can be shown experimentally by observing the movement of solute molecules in an electric field, using the technique of electrophoresis (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). For such experiments an ionic buffer solution is incorporated in a solid matrix layer, composed of paper or a crosslinked gelatin-like substance. A small amount of the amino acid, peptide or protein sample is placed near the center of the matrix strip and an electric potential is applied at the ends of the strip, as shown in the following diagram. The solid structure of the matrix retards the diffusion of the solute molecules, which will remain where they are inserted, unless acted upon by the electrostatic potential.

It should be clear that the result of this experiment is critically dependent on the pH of the matrix buffer. If we were to repeat the electrophoresis of these compounds at a pH of 3.80, the aspartic acid would remain at its point of origin, and the other amino acids would move toward the cathode. Ignoring differences in molecular size and shape, the arginine would move twice as fast as the alanine and isoleucine because its solute molecules on average would carry a double positive charge.

Different proteins migrate at different rates, depending on their isoelectric points and on the pH of the aqueous buffer, thereby effecting a separation of the mixture into its components. Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) illustrates this process for a mixture containing basic, neutral, and acidic components.